Informal
Ad Hominem
Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself.
Explanation
Criticizing the person instead of their argument.
Example
You're not a chef, so your opinion on cooking doesn't matter.
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Logical Fallacies
Master the art of critical thinking. Learn to identify common logical pitfalls and sharpen your reasoning skills with our age-appropriate guide.
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Fallacy
[fal-uh-see]NounPlural fal-la-cies.
Dictionary entry: fallacy
Explanation
“A logical fallacy is a mistake in reasoning that can make an argument seem convincing even when it isn't. The conclusion doesn't properly follow from the evidence.”
Example
For example: "Everyone has a phone, so phones must be free." That doesn't follow—popularity doesn't mean something is free.
40 fallacies
- Informal
Straw Man
Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack.
Explanation
Creating a false version of someone's argument to easily defeat it.
Example
Person A: We should have more environmental protections. Person B: Person A wants to shut down all industries, which will cause unemployment.
Learn more - Informal
Appeal to Ignorance
Claiming something is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa.
Explanation
Assuming a claim is true (or false) because it hasn't been proven otherwise.
Example
There's no evidence that ghosts don't exist, so they must be real.
Learn more - Informal
False Dilemma
Presenting two options as the only possibilities when more exist.
Explanation
Limiting options to two when there are other possibilities.
Example
We can either cut education funding or endure higher taxes. There's no other way.
Learn more - Informal
Slippery Slope
Arguing that a small first step will lead to a chain of related events culminating in some significant (usually negative) effect.
Explanation
Claiming a minor action will cause a domino effect of negative outcomes.
Example
If we allow students to use calculators on tests, soon they won't be able to do even simple math without them.
Learn more - Formal
Circular Argument
The reasoner begins with what they are trying to end with; the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises.
Explanation
Using what you're trying to prove as proof.
Example
We know God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is inspired by God.
Learn more - Informal
Hasty Generalization
Making a broad generalization based on a small or unrepresentative sample.
Explanation
Drawing a big conclusion from a small amount of evidence.
Example
Three of my friends got sick after eating at that restaurant; it must be bad.
Learn more - Informal
Red Herring
Diverting attention from the real issue by focusing on an issue having only a surface relevance to the first.
Explanation
Bringing up a different topic to distract from the original argument.
Example
When asked about pollution, the politician talks about how important it is to support the troops.
Learn more - Informal
Appeal to Authority
Believing something is true because an authority figure says it is, without examining the evidence.
Explanation
Trusting what someone says just because they are an expert or authority, without questioning it.
Example
The commercial claims this medicine works because a famous doctor says so.
Learn more - Informal
Appeal to Emotion
Manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument.
Explanation
Using feelings like fear or happiness to convince people instead of facts.
Example
Advertisements showing sad animals to get you to donate to a charity.
Learn more - Cognitive Bias
Bandwagon Fallacy
Assuming something is true (or right, or good) because other people agree with it.
Explanation
Believing a claim is true just because it's popular.
Example
Everyone I know is buying the latest smartphone model, so it must be the best available.
Learn more - Informal
False Cause
Assuming that because one thing occurred after another, it must have occurred as a result of it.
Explanation
Believing that just because one event followed another, the first event caused the second.
Example
There was a crime increase after the new mayor took office, so the new mayor caused the crime rate to rise.
Learn more - Formal
Equivocation
Using an ambiguous term in more than one sense, thus making an argument misleading.
Explanation
Playing on the double meaning of a word to mislead or confuse.
Example
Giving to charity is the right thing to do, so it's right to avoid taxes by giving to charity.
Learn more - Informal
Appeal to Tradition
Arguing that something is right because it has always been done that way.
Explanation
Justifying actions because they are traditional or have been done for a long time.
Example
We've always had a meat dish at our family gatherings; we can't have a vegetarian option now.
Learn more - Informal
No True Scotsman
Making what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of an argument.
Explanation
Rejecting counterexamples to a generalization by changing the criteria to exclude the counterexample.
Example
No true vegan would ever eat anything that casts a shadow. Someone who eats mushrooms, therefore, must not be a true vegan.
Learn more - Informal
Cherry Picking
Selectively presenting evidence that supports one's argument while ignoring or dismissing relevant evidence that contradicts it.
Explanation
Choosing only favorable evidence for your argument and ignoring the rest.
Example
A politician highlighting only the positive outcomes of their policy, while ignoring the negative impacts.
Learn more - Informal
False Equivalence
Drawing an equivalence between two subjects based on flawed or false reasoning.
Explanation
Comparing two things as if they are similar, when they are actually different in important ways.
Example
Comparing the accidental deaths caused by cars to intentional murders committed with guns as a reason against gun control.
Learn more - Informal
Burden of Proof
Asserting that the truth value of a claim rests upon one party without proper evidence, and shifting the burden of proof to the other party.
Explanation
Demanding the other side proves your claim is wrong instead of providing evidence that your claim is right.
Example
Claiming that aliens have visited Earth and saying it's up to skeptics to prove they haven't.
Learn more - Informal
Ambiguity
Using double meanings or ambiguities of language to mislead or misrepresent the truth.
Explanation
Making an argument confusing by using words that have unclear or double meanings.
Example
The sign says 'fine for parking here', so it must be okay to park in this spot.
Learn more - Statistical Errors
The Gambler's Fallacy
Believing that past events affect the probability of something happening in the future, in situations where the events are independent.
Explanation
The belief that if something occurs more frequently than normal during some period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa.
Example
After flipping heads ten times in a row, believing that tails is now due to come up.
Learn more - Informal
Shotgun Argumentation
Using multiple arguments hoping that one will be correct, without regard for contradictions.
Explanation
Presenting many arguments at once to overwhelm opposition, regardless of their consistency.
Example
In a debate, using several unrelated points to defend a policy, hoping one will resonate, despite their inconsistencies.
Learn more - Informal
Special Pleading
Applying standards, principles, rules, etc., to other people or circumstances while making oneself or certain circumstances exempt from the same critical criteria, without providing adequate justification.
Explanation
Claiming exceptions to rules or standards for oneself without proper justification.
Example
Arguing that you shouldn't be fined for speeding because you're a good driver.
Learn more - Cognitive Bias
Spotlight Fallacy
Assuming that cases that receive the most attention are the most representative of a larger group.
Explanation
Believing that the most publicized examples are typical of the broader category.
Example
Assuming most crimes are violent based on news reports, despite statistics showing most crimes are non-violent.
Learn more - Statistical Errors
Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy
Ignoring differences while focusing on similarities, thus drawing a target around a hit.
Explanation
Choosing data that support your argument while ignoring data that do not.
Example
Highlighting data that suggest a correlation between two unrelated events, ignoring the lack of causation.
Learn more - Informal
Tu Quoque
Dismissing someone's argument because they themselves don't follow it.
Explanation
Rejecting criticism because the critic is guilty of the same issue.
Example
Dismissing advice on healthy eating from someone who doesn't always eat healthily themselves.
Learn more - Informal
Moving the Goalposts
Changing the criteria of a proposition or argument in order to avoid being wrong.
Explanation
Altering the standards of evidence after they have been met to dismiss an argument.
Example
After a product passes initial tests, claiming those tests aren't enough and more are needed.
Learn more - Informal
Naturalistic Fallacy
Concluding about how things ought to be based on how things are or were in nature.
Explanation
The mistake of claiming something is right or good solely because it's natural.
Example
Claiming a diet is healthy because it's what our ancestors supposedly ate.
Learn more - Informal
Nirvana Fallacy
Comparing actual things with unrealistic, idealized alternatives.
Explanation
Dismissing a realistic solution because it doesn't solve all problems perfectly.
Example
Refusing to support a new environmental law because it doesn't eliminate pollution entirely.
Learn more - Informal
Non Sequitur
Making a conclusion that doesn't logically follow from the premises.
Explanation
Drawing a conclusion that isn't supported by the previous statements or evidence.
Example
He's wearing red shoes today, so he must be feeling aggressive.
Learn more - Informal
Reification (Hypostatization)
Treating an abstract concept as if it were a concrete thing.
Explanation
Giving physical qualities to abstract concepts.
Example
Saying that 'justice' has arrived in a community after a new law is passed.
Learn more - Cognitive Bias
Fallacy of Sunk Costs
Continuing on a detrimental path because you've already invested in it.
Explanation
The mistake of continuing a project or decision based on previously invested resources rather than current benefits.
Example
Continuing to invest in a failing business because of the amount already invested.
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Genetic Fallacy
Judging something good or bad based on where it comes from, or from whom it comes.
Explanation
Evaluating the value or truth of something based on its origins.
Example
Dismissing a good idea because it was suggested by a rival company.
Learn more - Informal
Guilt by Association
Discrediting an argument because of the origin or association of its proponent.
Explanation
Rejecting someone's argument because of their associations rather than the argument's merit.
Example
Claiming a political idea is wrong just because extremists support it.
Learn more - Informal
Historian's Fallacy
Assuming that decision makers of the past viewed events from the same perspective and having the same information as those subsequently analyzing the decision.
Explanation
Believing historical decisions were made with an awareness of their future outcomes.
Example
Criticizing historical figures for not foreseeing the long-term consequences of their actions.
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Moralistic Fallacy
Assuming that what is morally good or right must also be factually true.
Explanation
Believing that principles of morality or fairness necessarily align with factual truth.
Example
Believing that justice always prevails over injustice because it should.
Learn more - Informal
Argument from Silence (Argumentum ex Silentio)
Assuming that someone's silence on a matter proves their ignorance or agreement.
Explanation
Believing someone's lack of response to a claim means they agree with it or don't know about it.
Example
Because the author did not mention any drawbacks to the proposed solution in their article, it must mean there are none.
Learn more - Formal
Composition Fallacy
Assuming that what's true for the part is true for the whole.
Explanation
Believing that characteristics of some parts of something must apply to the whole thing.
Example
If a car has high performance parts, the car is assumed to be high performance overall.
Learn more - Formal
Division Fallacy
Assuming what's true for the whole must be true for its parts.
Explanation
Believing that the whole's characteristics must apply to all its parts.
Example
The team is the best in the league, so each player must be the best in their position.
Learn more - Formal
Ecological Fallacy
Making assumptions about individual members of a group based on the characteristics of the group as a whole.
Explanation
Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to all individuals within that group.
Example
Since the average income in the city is high, everyone there must be wealthy.
Learn more - Informal
Fallacy of Exclusion
Ignoring important evidence that contradicts your argument.
Explanation
Leaving out evidence that doesn't support your point.
Example
A study on diet effectiveness that excludes participants who gained weight.
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